Assessing students: Programmatic models for assessment

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Programmatic models of assessment

There are a variety of models for thinking about assessment: for example, most people know of the Bloom's Taxonomy, and the Miller Model is commonly used to assess clinical learning outcomes.

In this section, we look at some of the programmatic models frequently used in higher education.

Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning Domains

Most models have their conceptual roots in 'Bloom's Cognitive' taxonomy.

The collaboration that created Bloom's Cognitive taxonomy also created two other taxonomies: the 'Affective Domain' taxonomy and the 'Psycho-motor Domain' taxonomy.

The cognitive domain is about thinking / conceptualisation (see Anderson's taxonomy below).
The affective domain deals with ethics, values and behaviours, which are very hard to measure.
The Psycho-motor domain deals with physical education: motor / muscular skills and things like expressive movement such as dance.

Bloom's cognitive domain (Bloom's Taxonomy 1956)

Knowledge: Remembering or retrieving previously learned material. Examples of verbs that relate to this function are: know, identify, relate, list, record, name, recognize, acquire
Comprehension: The ability to grasp or construct meaning from material. Examples of verbs that relate to this function are: restate, locate, report, recognize, explain, express, illustrate, interpret, draw, represent, differentiate
Application: The ability to use learned material, or to implement material in new and concrete situations. Examples of verbs that relate to this function are: apply, relate, develop, translate, use, operate, practice, calculate, show, exhibit, dramatize
Analysis: The ability to break down or distinguish the parts of material into its components so that its organizational structure may be better understood. Examples of verbs that relate to this function re: analyze, compare, probe, inquire, examine, contrast, categorize, experiment, scrutinize, discover, inspect, dissect, discriminate, separate
Synthesis: The ability to put parts together to form a coherent or unique new whole. Examples of verbs that relate to this function are: compose, produce, design, assemble, create, prepare, predict, modify, tell, propose, develop, arrange, construct, organize, originate, derive, write, propose
Evaluation: The ability to judge, check, and even critique the value of material for a given purpose. Examples of verbs that relate to this function are: judge, assess, compare, evaluate, conclude, measure, deduce, validate, consider, appraise, value, criticize, infer

Adapted from http://www.celt.iastate.edu/teaching/effective-teaching-practices/revised-blooms-taxonomy/

Bloom's affective domain

Category or 'level'	Behavior descriptions	Examples of experience, or demonstration and evidence to be measured	'Key words' (verbs which describe the activity to be trained or measured at each level)
1. Receiving	Open to experience, willing to hear	Listen to teacher or trainer, take interest in session or learning experience, take notes, turn up, make time for learning experience, participate passively	Ask, listen, focus, attend, take part, discuss, acknowledge, hear, be open to, retain, follow, concentrate, read, do, feel
2. Responding	React and participate actively	Participate actively in group discussion, active participation in activity, interest in outcomes, enthusiasm for action, question and probe ideas, suggest interpretation	React, respond, seek clarification, interpret, clarify, provide other references and examples, contribute, question, present, cite, become animated or excited, help team, write, perform
3. Valuing	Attach values and express personal opinions	Decide worth and relevance of ideas, experiences; accept or commit to particular stance or action	Argue, challenge, debate, refute, confront, justify, persuade, criticize,
4. Organizing or Conceptualizing Values	Reconcile internal conflicts; develop value system	Qualify and quantify personal views, state personal position and reasons, state beliefs	Build, develop, formulate, defend, modify, relate, prioritize, reconcile, contrast, arrange, compare
5. Internalizing or Characterizing Values	Adopt belief system and philosophy	Self-reliant; behave consistently with personal value set	Act, display, influence

Adapted from http://serc.carleton.edu/NAGTWorkshops/affective/index.html

The psychomotor domain

Bloom never completed the Psychomotor Domain. The most recognised version was developed by Ravindra H. Dave.

Category or 'level'	Behavior Descriptions	Examples of activity or demonstration and evidence to be measured	'Key words' (verbs which describe the activity to be trained or measured at each level)
Imitation	Copy action of another; observe and replicate	Watch teacher or trainer and repeat action, process or activity	Copy, follow, replicate, repeat, adhere, attempt, reproduce, organize, sketch, duplicate
Manipulation	Reproduce activity from instruction or memory	Carry out task from written or verbal instruction	Re-create, build, perform, execute, implement, acquire, conduct, operate
Precision	Execute skill reliably, independent of help, activity is quick, smooth, and accurate	Perform a task or activity with expertise and to high quality without assistance or instruction; able to demonstrate an activity to other learners	Demonstrate, complete, show, perfect, calibrate, control, achieve, accomplish, master, refine
Articulation	Adapt and integrate expertise to satisfy a new context or task	Relate and combine associated activities to develop methods to meet varying, novel requirements	Solve, adapt, combine, coordinate, revise, integrate, adapt, develop, formulate, modify, master
Naturalization	Instinctive, effortless, unconscious mastery of activity and related skills at strategic level	Define aim, approach and strategy for use of activities to meet strategic need	Construct, compose, create, design, specify, manage, invent, project-manage, originate

Adapted from http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/Bloom/psychomotor_domain.html

Bigg's Structure of the Observed Learning Outcome (SOLO) taxonomy

John Biggs developed a Cognitive taxonomy closely related to Bloom's/Anderson's taxonomy - the SOLO taxonomy. People tend to relate to one or the other of these.

Adapted from http://www.johnbiggs.com.au/academic/solo-taxonomy/

The Miller model for assessing competence

The Miller Pyramid is very relevant to learning outcomes in clinical competence. In this model, the student developed progressively from gathering knowledge, to being able to interpret and apply that knowledge, to being able to demonstrate knowledge in performance, to - at the highest level - performing in a workplace context.

At the lower levels of the pyramid, the aim is for the students to understand the theory that is the foundation of clinical competence. They develop this understanding from knowledge transmission learning activities, such as lectures, readings, and demonstrations.

At the upper levels, the aim is for them to integrate the theory (intellectual skills), their psychomotor skills, and professional attitudes, to perform as health professionals in different contexts.

The Dreyfus model of skill acquisition

The Dreyfus model of skills acquisition is based on approaches which work on instruction and experience. In this model, the student passes through five stages:

novice
competence
proficiency
expertise
mastery

A skilled student depends more on experience than on principles, and has a fresh view of the task environment in a different way.

Dreyfus, SE & Dreyfus, HL 1980, A five-stage model of the mental activities involved in directed skills acquisition

Interesting resource

From the Educational Bench to the Clinical Bedside: Translating the Dreyfus Developmental Model to the Learning of Clinical Skills